Background
The 2005 U.S. Transportation Bill funded each state to offer Safe Routes to School (SRTS) initiatives to increase active commuting to school (ACS). In September 2007, the Texas Transportation Commission approved $24.7 million for 250 projects in communities through individual or district-wide grants on a cost-reimbursement basis. Of these, 194 were awarded non-infrastructure projects, which included development of local plans, local implementation, or statewide implementation. The remaining 56 were awarded infrastructure grants, which included an engineering project to allow active transport to schools, such as sidewalks, crosswalks, etc. The way in which SRTS funding was allocated in Texas led to a natural experiment opportunity to examine the outcomes of policy implementation across different schools/sites.
Objectives
The goal of this study was to determine the effects of differing funding allocation methods (infrastructure versus non-infrastructure grants) on ACS three years after implementation of the state SRTS projects. Our primary hypotheses were: (1) schools with SRTS infrastructure funding would have a significantly greater percentage of children engaged in ACS compared with schools with SRTS non-infrastructure funding and schools with no SRTS funding, and (2) schools with SRTS non-infrastructure funding would have a significantly greater percentage of children engaged in ACS compared with students in schools with no SRTS funding.
Methods
The study was quasi-experimental, with three conditions: (1) funded infrastructure (n = 23); (2) funded non-infrastructure (n = 22); and (3) matched comparison/control (n = 34) schools. Elementary schools were selected based on funding type, location (urban/rural), race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic status (SES); comparison schools had similar characteristics but received no funding. Non-infrastructure schools were required to submit a plan by 2008, with the intent to implement the plan during 2009; infrastructure schools had a longer time frame for implementation, depending upon the time needed to complete construction of the proposed project(s). ACS counts were obtained by self-report at baseline (2009), interim (2010, 2011), and follow up (2012) time periods for before school (morning) and after school (afternoon) commutes. Serial cross-sectional survey data were collected from 4th grade students and their parents during baseline (2009) and follow up (2011-2012), using questionnaires with demonstrated validity and reliability. Built environmental characteristics of each school’s campus and its nearby streets were measured with an audit instrument (Lee et al. 2013). School-level implementation of SRTS policies was determined using a questionnaire completed by the principal or designate. Data were analyzed using mixed linear regression and controlled for random and fixed effects, and other independent variables. Growth curve models were fit to represent the repeated measures of percentage of 4th graders using ACS as a function of time and school type, controlling for weather. For a global measure of implementation of SRTS policies, a scale was developed using the sum of SRTS activity questions on the school-level survey, with potential responses ranging from 0 to 16.
Results
Surveys were collected from 1653 and 1700 parent-child dyads at baseline and follow up, respectively. The study sample of children was approximately half male at both baseline and follow up; distribution of race/ethnicity was similar at both baseline and follow up, with approximately 63% Hispanic/Latino and 7% African American. Morning percentages of ACS in infrastructure and non-infrastructure schools were significantly higher than in comparison schools (p=.024, p=.013, respectively) (Figure 1). No significant linear trend was noted for morning percent ACS overall, but non-infrastructure schools had decreased percent ACS over time (p=0.014). For afternoon percent ACS, there was an overall increasing trend (p=0.015), but afternoon percent ACS in non-infrastructure schools decreased over time (p=0.009). Total percent ACS (morning and afternoon) in non-infrastructure schools showed a decreased trend over time (p=0.002). Parents from all schools, regardless of funding status, reported significantly worse neighborhood bikeability and walkability from baseline to follow up (p30 minutes daily physical activity (p
Conclusions
Implementation of cost-reimbursement policies that fund SRTS infrastructure projects do not appear to have significant effects on percent ACS in the short term; these policies may negatively affect percent ACS for non-infrastructure projects over time. Comparison schools implemented more SRTS activities at follow-up, indicating a secular dissemination of these activities. More long term follow-up may be necessary to determine outcomes of infrastructure projects, due to project completion time.
Implications
Policies that provide cost-reimbursement funding for SRTS initiatives appear to be difficult to implement at a high level, and thus, are not able to achieve desired outcomes in the short term. Non-infrastructure activities need mechanisms for continued support or maintenance over time.
References
Lee, C., Kim, H. J., Dowdy, D. M., Hoelscher, D. M., & Ory, M. G. (2013). TCOPPE School Environmental Audit Tool: Assessing Safety and Walkability of School Environments. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 10, 949-960.
Suport / Funding Source
This study was funded by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, with partial funding from the Michael & Susan Dell Foundation, and contributions from UTSPH, TAMHSC, Texas Health Institute, Live Smart Texas, and the Texas Department of State Health Services.
